CURRENT COMMENTS - PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL SELF-RELIANCE IN ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTERS

Achieving national’ self-reliance in Science and Technology (S and T) has been a major theme of all our planning exercises since independence. It has almost become an unwritten covenant to justify every plan and policy by arguing that it will lead towards greater self-reliance. And it is undeniable that we have made certain headway in that direction. The dispute is only over' just how far we have managed to move towards self-reliance, how far we can hope to get in that direction, and what would be a realistic plan to work with' and the disputes are often loud and bitter. There is hardly any major S and T venture announced (nuclear plants, satellites, rockets, computers almost anything) without an accompanying loud claim that it is "wholly" or "mostly" indigenous. And equally rare is the instance when such claims have not been openly and seriously challenged on the grounds that,' in reality, very little of it is of truly indigenous origin. Between such claims and counter claims, the truth is invariably jettisoned.

We believe that this need not be so any more. As a nation we have quite come of age, and should have' no fear in facing the truth about ourselves. We already have a few instances of such candid and bold statements about ourselves; first in the case of the red unction system' as brought out further document The Challenge of Education" and then, to a lesser extent, in the case of the Abid Hussain Committee report on the CSIR. There is a need today for an open and candid discussion of our achievements and failures on the issue of national self-reliance' in S and T matters. There is a need for a major restatement of the problem in the light of our past experiences as well as in the current international context. Beyond smugness or complacency and passion or rhetoric, there is a need for a statement of what is’ possible and how we plan to do it. While such an exercise is in fact necessary for our entire S and T scene, we believe a beginning can be made with Electronics and Computers.

The area of Electronics and Computers is, in many ways, unique and best suited to make a serious thrust towards national' self-reliance. For one thing, it is a thoroughly modern enterprise and hence is free of many of the problems that afflict 'traditional* industrial sectors of our economy. It is much easier to plan, formulate and implement policies and programmers in this sector. This is also an area where we have built up substantial competence and infrastructure. This area would perhaps have the highest percentage of bright young men and women, brimming with confidence, who are looking for challenging opportunities. It has also been recognized by the Government and other agencies that, in the "information age" that we are entering, our performance in the area of Electronics and Computers is going to be of decisive importance - caution has been sounded at the highest level that we, as a nation cannot afford to "miss this bus" also. It is also pointed out frequently that when small countries like South Korea and Taiwan are able to do so much in this area, we with our infrastructural facilities and skilled man-power should be able to achieve a lot more.

What exactly has been the extent to which self-reliance has been achieved in Electronics and Computers is a highly contentious issue. On the one hand we seem all poised to build our own super-computers while on the other it is pointed out that even the PCs we make have hardly anything indigenous about it. It is revealing that after seeing an exhibition of the widest range of "indigenous" computers and related products arranged in Madras during the CSI-88 convention, the advisor to the Prime Minister on the Technology Missions was forthright in his opinion that he was "not impressed at all". While we are believed to have advanced tremendously in mass communication areas like radio and television, we see every manufacturer flaunting a foreign collaboration agreement. While we have been actively working in the area of high frequency communications for many decades, most working systems still have to be imported in toto. Even in the area of simple test and measuring equipments like oscilloscopes, the trend seems to be to go for wholesale collaboration or some other variant of that theme. Even in the most elementary things like passive components, wires, connectors etc, the quality of what we produce seems so bad as to make every one (who can afford) try various ways (not all of them straight) of having them imported.

While none of the above is unknown to any of the four major actors on the stage, viz. the Government, the public Sector, the private industry and the academic community, each seems to think that it is the others who are responsible for it. While the Government thinks that each of the parties is out to defeat its well-intentioned measures for their own selfish interests, the rest are quite convinced that the major reason for this situation is the Governments' lack of clear thinking, planning and implementation. The public sector does not at all see why it alone has to uphold the banner of indigenousness, be supplied with third-rate stuff and ultimately be blamed for inefficiency, poor quality etc., while everyone else can have 'the best and the latest' from abroad. As for the private industry, it lives in a fast changing world of stiff competition and high expectations and it cannot risk toying with ideas of self-reliance, patriotism and so on. And finally, the academic community is convinced that nobody has any real interest in harnessing its services to build national self-reliance, while everyone else seems to think that they (the academic community) are quite incapable of producing anything other than some fancy papers in some far-away fancy journals. This completes the circle, and while everyone stands to gain from a major thrust towards national self-reliance, no one is sure as to who should bell the eat.

Our efforts today should be directed towards breaking this deadlock, and get some free and frank communication started between persons belonging to the Government, the public sector, the private industry and the academic community on the question of national self-reliance in Electronics and Computers. The idea is to have an uninhibited exchange of how each party perceives the issue. Since all parties concerned are committed to the idea, to varying degrees, that we have to strive towards increasing self-reliance, the major part of the discussion can only be on what are the major difficulties and problems, as perceived by each party, in realizing this objective. For, there could indeed be serious problems;’ and some of them may even be insurmountable for the present.

It has to be understood that every foreign collaboration does not and should not necessarily mean a sell out to foreign interests and a surrender of national sovereignty. It is possible that; at least for the time being, in some areas of Electronics and Computers it may not be pragmatic and prudent to even attempt to be totally self-reliant. But then this has to be a conscious and spelt out decision. We must have the courage to spell out .clearly that in* such-and-such matters, we would continue to import technologies and/or products. Equally strongly should it be stated that every protagonist of indigenous technology development and national self-reliance is not necessarily a threat to progress and modernization, and a champion of backwardness and obsolescence. For, we as a nation have spent enough time in developing manpower and infrastructural capabilities and facilities (some sort of a 'probation period' with modern S & T) that we should now at least begin delivering, and delivering fast. Our experience of the last four decades should be enough for us to make up our minds as to what parts we would do on our own and for what parts we would depend on others. The question of national self-reliance is not merely one of patriotism or national prestige, important as they are; it is also a question of efficient, viable and sustained utilization of our human and material addition to being, also a matter of the dignity and creativity of an entire resources, in civilization.

The point is that, moving towards self-reliance in this area is likely to demand great discipline and sacrifice from all the parties involved. It is possible that we may have to, for the present, settle for things' in Electronics and Computers that are not the latest (like a five - micron technology when the 'world* is moving into sub-micron technologies). We may be accused of turning the clock backwards, etc. The important thing is to have an open acceptance of the fact that the road towards self-reliance is a thorny and hard one, and also that for us as a nation there is little choice in the matter. Another important dimension involved is that of the time-frame. It cannot any more be one of 20 or 30 years. We must, if we are serious at all about it, begin talking about self-reliance inters of 3 to 5 years.

As a first step, we should identify the basic issues and discuss them, say in a seminar. Our aim should be to arrive at a shared understanding of the problems involved and an outline of how and where we may possibly make some beginnings. We should have detailed reviews of our current state and prospects in various areas such as: (a) Components, (b) Devices 'and ICs, (c) Communications, (d) Fiber Optics, (e) Mini, Mainframe | and super-computers, (f) PCs, .(g) Test and Measuring instruments, (h) Entertainment electronics I (i) Control systems. Our first target should be to have a thorough review of the scene in each area, both nationally and interriatkmalry, bring out the level of indigenous performance in that area, outline the major problems involved, propose what could be attempted in say the next 3 to 5 years and spell out the required steps to be' taken as well as what would be demanded of each of the sectors involved.

Perhaps what we can hope for from such a discussion in a broad statement a statement, that could1 be a useful input to our planners and policy makers. Such a statement could also have a great educational value for the S and T Community as well as the public for it could be used to explain to them the real nature of the issues involved. It is indeed very useful to have a widespread appreciation of the very complex nature of the issue of national self-reliance in the present day context. But there is no reason why, through serious efforts, we cannot evolve some sort of a national consensus on this issue.

However, even more important would be our commitment to work together for indigenous development in the area of Electronics and Computers. May be we can work out a plan of what we can do in terms of our research and development, in terms of our participation in national bodies like Computer Society of India (CSI) and Institute of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) (for after-all these bodies should take up the effort of indigenous development as their main goal), and in terms of participation on various Government and Institutional Committees.


Author:Dr. C.N.Krishnan, & Dr. Ashok Jhunjhunwala

CURRENT COMMENTS - STILL OUT OF STEP WITH THE NEEDS OF THE NATION: A NOTE ON THE AMD HUSSAIN COMMITTEE REPORT ON THE CSIR

The Prime Minister in his capacity as the President of the Society of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) appointed, in April 1986, a committee under the chairmanship of Shri Abid Hussain, Member, Planning Commission, to review the functions and structure of the CSIR. This step was, in the opinion of the Committee itself, necessitated by the obvious perception that the work of the CSIR was out of step with the' needs of the nation". In addition to Shri Hussain, the Committee had six other members - two from private industry, two from public sector industry and two from academic community - and its terms of reference were quite comprehensive. The Abid Hussain Committee, (hereafter referred to simply as the Committee), submitted its report on 31st December 1986, and jet contained some 58 recommendations. While it still continues to be today unclear as to whether the Government proposes to implement all or any of the recommendations! the matter has received a fair amount of attention and has been discussed quite widely.

The Background

The CSIR of India was registered as a Society in 1942 under the Societies' Registration Act of I860,1 and its objects as laid down in its Memorandum of Association are very wide and comprehensive. Modeled closely after a similar institution in England, the CSIR has over the' years, grown to become the largest employer of S and T manpower in the country; having 39 laboratories' that exhaust all topics other than Nuclear Energy and Space Research, over 100 extension centers, 5600 scientists and technologists supported by 12,000 technical personnel, and an annual budget of over Rs.200 crores. Even though it is legally an autonomous body, die CSIR functions practically as a department of the Central Government Its funds are voted by the Parliament and the Government of India is answerable to the Parliament for its functioning. Even though the CSIR still operates with the multiplicity of objectives with which it had started, its mandate in independent India has essentially been one of working on import-substitution at various levels and areas. That is, it has been understood widely and repeated frequently that the job of the CSIR is industrial research aimed at evolving indigenous products and processes that will meet the needs of our industry; in other words free our industry from dependence on foreign knowhow, technology and materials.

Being an 'open system', (unlike the DAE, DRDO, ISRO etc.) the CSIR has been repeatedly probed - the Abid Hussain Committee is the fifth such effort at evaluating the CSIR's functioning and performance. The earlier committees were in 1947, 1954, 1963 and 1968, the last of which, the Starker Committee, submitted its report to the then Prime Minister Smt Indira Gandhi in August 197L While all the Review Committees have made definite recommendations, the present Committee has been the boldest and most candid in its criticism of the flaws in the CSIR system. As in the case of the earlier review of our education system as presented in the document "The chanengr. of Education", this Government does not seem to spare itself any troubles when it comes to reviewing and evaluating the functioning of some of its departments. If this coldness is an indication of the confidence that has been acquired by our elite as regards running the various institutions in the country, then that would of course be a welcome change.

In what follows, we would take a quick look at some details of the Committee’s findings.

The Recommendations

While there are 58 recommendations that cover the various aspects of the CSIR system and its interfaces, some of the more important ones are summarized below:

1. CSIR should adopt the "missions" approach. Examples are Technology development and application mission" in areas such as steel, fertilizers, petrochemicals, energy and transportation, as well as "Societal Missions" in areas such as production of cheap health kits, development of low cost nutritious food for children, etc.

2. The CSIR should earn one-third of its annual expenditure from outside sponsored research (as against one-eighth at present).

3. The Governing Body of the CSIR as wad as the Research Councils of the individual laboratories should be reconstituted to have a much higher proportion of outside representation. These bodies should be divested of their duties of day-to-day administration and management, and become more of research policy formulating and guiding bodies.

4. The CSIR Head Quarters in Delhi should have three distinct functioning technical groups - Research and Planning Group, Technology Development Group and Human Resources Development Group.

5. Apart from the normal stream of scientists, there should be a special stream for highly talented experts on contract appointment for a fixed duration at a salary 50% higher than that of the normal stream.

6. Continuation of staff in CSIR after 20 years of service or beyond the age of 50 to be made only on the basis of an assessment.

7. The Directors of the Laboratories should be appointed for a non-renewable term of six years.

8. A Central Training Institute should be established in the CSIR for training, retraining and orientation needs of the CSIR personnel.

9. The staff strength of the CSIR laboratories should not be increased any further, and the scientific to non-scientific staff strength ratio to be reduced from the present 1:3 to 1:15.

10. The following changes, among others, need to be made in the structure of the CSIR.

(I) The Regional Research Labs (RRLs) should not be called Regional any more but to become central CSIR laboratories in their respective areas of expertise. The RRL Bhopal to be wound up or given over to other agencies.
(ii) The Publications and Information Directorate (PID), New Delhi and Indian National Scientific Documentations Centre (INSDOC), New Delhi should be merged together.
(iii) The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa, Institute of Microbial Technology (IMT), Chandigarh, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, National Institute of Science Technology and Development Studies (NISTADS), New Delhi and National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur laboratories belonging to the CSIR should be transferred to the Scientific Departments of the Central Government dealing with the corresponding areas of specialization.
(iv) All the 100-odd CSIR extension centers should be closed down or given over to' other agencies.

11. To encourage industrial R and D in the country, the Government should Levy on R and D CASs of 0.75% of the gross output value on all industries. The actual R and D expenditure incurred by the firm would be deducted from this amount.

12. The Government should encourage and reward the use of indigenous technologies by providing appropriate incentives and facilities.

13. In order to assimilate the imported technologies, all firms must be made to invest in in-house R and D an amount equal to what it pays towards the imported technologies.

14. There should be a CSIR scientist on the Board of Directors of all public sector undertakings: similarly all private companies importing foreign technology in a big way would have one Government nominated technologist on the Board of Governors.

Considering the size of the CSIR system as well as the fact that a comprehensive review of this type is taking place after over 15 years, it cannot be said that the recommendations such as the above are in any way too drastic or punitive. However, the Committee itself feels that its recommendations may, at times, appear somewhat harsh.....". What is indeed harsh and devastating are the critical observations, that the Committee makes on the performance of the CSIR.

Observation of the Committee

The following are some of the critical observations that the Committee makes on the performance of the CSIR; while making them the Committee hopes that it would not be sowing the seeds of panic and detracting from its achievements...."

1. Much of the CSIR's work has been on known processes and known products, akin to reinventing the wheel...". Often it has also been like "solutions looking for problems..."

2. The prevalent ambience in CSIR has been one "..... in which science has perished, whew a few scientists have nourished".

3. There has been a large scale future to ".... transform scientific results in the laboratory into technologies for industrial production". The industrial sector believes that the CSIR labs are "incapable of useful and timely research...".

4. The CSIR personnel policy has "treated achievers and non-achievers alike". There is ".... little reward for performance, and there is no penalty for non-performance". "Good performance does not confer any additional benefits....".

5. The pursuit of objectives in the CSIR only ".... seeks recognition for individuals, rather than successes based on team work".

6. "There is a disproportionate emphasis on basic research", aimed at "receiving individual recognition from other scientists in the profession, academic kudos and material reward". Even tn basic research, international standards of excellence has been attained only in exceptional cases.'

7. The culture of CSIR even today is "that of a university research department"; "the CSIR labs have become, in effect, post graduate centers in chemistry, classical physics, Biology, Civil and Structural Engineering".

8. "The CSIR has had no well-defined corporate goals or objectives; planning and programming for research has been virtually absent".

9. "The CSIR labs have departed from the original purpose for which they were set up..." "Breadth has been achieved at the expense of depth.-"

10. The present level of post-laboratory-scale development expenditure (needed to transform the scientific results into commercially viable technologies) is only one-hundredth of what k internationally considered necessary.

For an organization that is nearing half a century of existence and that is entrusted with the vital job of evolving technologies for our industrial development, the above observations that too coming from a Committee appointed by the Prime Minister himself are indeed very severe. In the light of such observations, the recommendations of the Committee if anything appear to be rather inadequate and feeble to set anything right.

The Committee also takes note of the achievements of the CSIR and does make some laudatory observations. "... There can be no doubt that the CSIR ushered into India, a culture of scientific research and milieu which created talents in science and innovation in ideas. There is now a reservoir of talented scientists in the system which represents an accumulation of human capital. What i is more, as the pioneer scientific agency in the country, the CSIR has provided a spring board of ideas and activities in the realm of science and technology. At the same time, it has served as a nursery which has, in the early stages, nurtured the growth of many talented scientists and some excellent Institutions....". "The JCSIR's scientific profile is impressive. It has the largest stock of S and T manpower and the largest number of doctorates among all the S and T agencies in the country. CSIR's' performance in science has received adequate recognition. In terms of publication in foreign journals, CSIR ranks second, next only to the publications in University system. Even in terms of membership of national academies, CSIR ranked third after the University and ICAR Groups".

The Committee also lists some "tangible contributions" of the CSIR in recent times. These include supply of wholly indigenous "technology" based on which about 50,000 tractors (valued at R&200 crores) have been produced: development of petroleum refining processes and catalysts, modem pesticides with low residual effects, Titanium substrate 'insoluble anode for chloralkali industry, instrumentation and processing technique for 'sugar and leather industry, and test facilities for aircraft.

Thus, while there certainly have been some success, the overall picture that emerges is none too flattering for the CSIR system. The Committee however does not put the blame for this entirely on the CSIR itself. For example, it believes that the funding to the CSIR has been too meager compared to 'other agencies like ISRO, DAE, DRDO etc. The CSIR has been asked to take up a range of activities much wider than any other similar organization; there’ has been a failure of the industrial sector in utilizing the talents of the CSIR; there has been a failure of the Government in creating a framework of policies conducive to indigenous technology development; and finally the CSIR has been adversely affected, like any other organization, by the prevalent ethos of our nation as a whole.

In the above, we have only touched 3 upon some of the more serious and unexceptionable observations of this committee. Many observations, unfortunately, are not of such type. An example would be the Committee's remarks on "the graying of CSIR". It believes that the present average age of 42 of the1 scientists in the CSIR is too high and is partly responsible for its poor performance. If this observation is meant seriously, then it only points to the great depth to which the CSIR system must have fallen so as to make its scientist ‘old’ and non-productive even at the age of 42! Another observation that the Committee makes is that the CSIR has been deprived of talents by other organizations such as the DAE, ISRO, DRDO eta, which lure away all the bright scientists. This is indeed a strange thing to say about the premier S and T organization of the country!

Another observation that the Committee makes repeatedly, and with more serious implications, is regarding the prevalence of "Government Culture" in the CSIR. This Committee of the Government of India, appointed by the Prime Minister, says repeatedly that the CSIR has been dysfunctional to the extent it works like a Department of the Government of India! While it is indeed a very good thing to be candid etc, that such observations can be so casually made has rather disturbing implications.

Some of the observations that the Committee makes regarding the CSIR are very perceptive and apply, more or less equally, to the entire Indian S and T scene. In some sense, many of the deeper issues that the Committee touches up on have been rather perennial to the modern S and T set up in India, right from its very inception. And these have been repeatedly pointed out by committee after committee, and the observation by the present Committee are only the latest addition to this long list. We now take a closer look at some of those issues and try to locate where the problems lie.

Some deeper issues

1. The Committee says "... the very concept of CSIR is a myth..." in the sense that it is nearly a collection of 39 laboratories with very little interaction or integration amongst them. It is repeatedly pointed out that this is so even amongst those laboratories that are working on similar problems. The Sara Committee earlier had also pointed this out in some detail In fact this lack of interaction among scientists working on similar problems within the country is widely prevalent in all areas of S and T in India; and is quite well known to the Indian scientists. While our scientists, particularly the top ones, show great eagerness to cultivate and mainframe contacts with scientists working abroad in similar areas, they seem quite indifferent regarding inter actions amongst themselves. This perhaps has been a characteristic feature of modern S and T practice in our country right from the beginning A very eloquent statement of this problem was made as early as 1916 by Thomas Hengy Holland who headed the Indian Industrial Commission. Talking about the lack of interaction and coordination amongst the scientists in the Agricultural Department, Holland observed ".... each of these specialists worked in an isolated manner.... The plant pathologist at the Pusa Research Institute tends to be closely linked with German vegetable pathologists than with his colleagues in the Agricultural Department of India...". That as an independent nation, we have so far done little to solve this problem is being highlighted in some recent debates.

* It is partly to overcome this problem that the Sarkar Committee had suggested formation of a co-ordination Councils among the different Laboratories working in the related fields. The Abid Hussain Committee has however now recommended the abolition of these Co-ordination Councils as "they have not served any useful purpose......"
The Committee's observation1 about the CSIR only points to a much larger problem, viz our failure to evolve an Indian Scientific Community with a distinct national identity. While this observation is quite pertinent, it appears that the Committee is unwilling to go deeper into this issue. Or worse still, it perhaps does not even see the real nature of the problem. For instance, the Committee announces proudly that the CSIR comes second only to the University System' when it comes to publications in foreign journals. But what does this imply? After all it’ has been one of the major responsibilities of the CSIR to bring out high quality, scientific and technological journals in this country, and the poor standard of the CSIR journals is proof enough that it has mostly failed in this responsibility. It is evident that the CSIR journals are poor because the CSIR scientists send all their good papers abroad. Dr.A.P.Mitra, Director General of CSIR, has himself pointed out recently that only 10% of the CSIR Scientists publish into CSIR journals. In this context, what does it then mean to point out as a major achievement the fact that most CSIR scientists publish' abroad? The point is that in this entire exercise of the Committee," while certain pertinent observations are made, there is an inadequate realisation of what the dimensions of the problem are.

2. Another, issue that the Committee discusses at some length is that of "basic research" vs. "applied research". As mentioned in an earlier section, it points out that the primary objective of the CSIR viz., industrial research, has often been abandoned in favors of pure or basic research. In fact the Sarkar Committee fifteen years ago had elaborately dealt with the same issue. One of its major recommendations read "....the activities of the CSIR should be confined to industrial research, and fundamental research is to be pursued only where it is relevant to industrial research".

This lack of an industrial research culture in the CSIR was dramatically commented upon by PMJS Blackest in 1963 when he said about NFL "... large part of NPL was literally a University organization shirting its teaching duties". As a matter of fact, this confusion between "pure" and "applied" research also appears to be quite endemic to modern S and T set up in India. One comes across heated debates on this issue more than a hundred years ago in the context of the running of the Indian Association for Cultivation of Science in Calcutta - Mahendralal Sarkar is even said to have wished that the term "applied science" were not invented at all! There also seems to have been a major controversy between Sana and Visweswarayya as to which should be given priority in our country.

Even in the context of the present Committee, its accusation that most of CSIR's work was of the type of “re-inventing the wheel" is quite puzzling. Now, if the CSIR's major mandate was import substitution, and if our planners, leaders and policy-makers want us to have products and processes similar to what is available in the West, then it is not clear how one can avoid Cementing the wheel". "Reinventing the Wheel" then is presumably contrasted with originality and creativity. But was the job of CSIR to concentrate on originality or was it to come up with viable, working technologies no matter whether they are re-invented or not?

That this issue of "pure" vs. "applied" research has been discussed, almost in identical words, for over a hundred years and more without any clarity or consensus emerging perhaps suggests that irrespective of whatever its nature has been this activity must have been quite peripheral to the economic activity of our society as such. Because, if this activity indeed was of great consequence, then we would have by now come to some kind of a decision on what its nature would be etc.

3. Another 'perennial theme' that the Committee takes up is whether the different laboratories should stay in the CSIR or should become parts of the concerned Government Departments. It lists many advantages of the latter arrangement, and in fact recommends, as already stated, handing over some five laboratories to the concerned Government departments. It is interesting to observe that the Sarkar Committee gave equally strong arguments for the other course of action. Much earlier, the Committee appointed by the British Government in 1944 to suggest how the Indian S and T research should be organized (headed by A.V. Hill) had strong views that the research laboratories, even though receiving their funds from the Government, should not be under any government ministry. The point is, this question has been periodically brought up and discussed by various committees without ever coming to a clear cut position on it That questions like this, apparently of great importance to the working of the laboratories, can be discussed and debated endlessly again gives one an impression that whatever was happening in these laboratories was perhaps of only peripheral interest to the larger society, and it did not quite matter whichever arrangement was eventually effected.

A related question in this context is the Committee's recommendation to close down the 100 - odd Extension Centers, abolish the Cooixhnation Councils, etc Now, it is perfectly legitimate to dismantle structures and arrangements as soon as they have stopped being functional or have completed their mission. What is the case in the case of say this Extension Centers? Is it the understanding that they have served their purpose and are therefore not required anymore? An unlikely proposition, as the CSIR as a whole is observed not to have fulfilled most of its missions. In which case, what are the new arrangements to realise those objectives for which the Extension Centers were originally set up? Or is it understood that those objectives are no longer important or relevant? As long as these issues are not clearly and categorically spelt out, it is likely that the same measures that are now being cancelled would be proposed with much fanfare and expectations at a later period in time, and we would go through the same cycle all over.

4. One other issue that receives great attention from the Committee is that of manpower framing. In fact, as we saw earlier, one of the major achievements of the CSIR for which it is commended is that it has produced a reservoir of highly skilled and trained S and manpower. The Sarkar Committee earlier had also spoken of this as a major success area of CSIR. While this fact is perhaps quite undeniable and is in itself quite impressive, the point remains that manpower development was never meant to be the major preoccupation of the CSIR. There are a large number of other institutions and c organizations, who have been entrusted with this task as their major preoccupation. The point seems tobe that the CSIR, is having to point to such incidental outputs as major successes only because it has not been able to make much headway in its major mission, viz. development of indigenous technologies. How serious this trap can be seen from the fact that the Committee has now; recommended the setting up of a central man-power training institute within the CSIR! And we can be quite sure that the next review committee of the CSIR would point to the great success that this institute is proving to be!

This issue has a much wider-dimension. That we have managed to produce a reservoir of skilled S and TJ manpower in our county is repeatedly pointed out as the most important achievement of our modern S and T set up as a whole, and not just within the CSIR. While not belittling the significance of this point, it is quite obvious that creating skills, potential etc. are only a means and not an end in itself. Perhaps it was justified some 10-15 years ago to be happy about this achievement. But in the face of our failure to make any significant use of such skills and potentials, a point is soon reaching where the continuation of this process would begin to be counterproductive and unhealthy. As a matter of fact, the absence of any definite plan or program me has already begun to reduce this reservoir of skilled manpower to mere consumers of foreign products, processes and technologies without delivering anything substantial or significant. The point is, it is high time we stopped pretending to be such novices and beginners in modern S and T as to be' pleased with whatever little we are able to accomplish at whatever exorbitant cost, it is time we began tasks more seriously and set bold and challenging taken that can really utilize the skills and potentials created during all these years.

5. Thus, while the Committee does raise many pertinent issues quite boldly and bluntly, it is still not able to go beyond the .tradition of similar committees earlier and come to firmer grips with most of the issues' involved. Much of what it says have all been said before too. Even then, and given the limited scope of its observations and recommendations, this report can still be made a starting point for some bold experiments
on the organization of modern S and in India.

The single most important lacuna of the Indian S and T set up appears to be the absence of a Scientific and Technological community with a distinct national identity, outlook and purpose. What the Abid Hussain Committee points out is a similar lacuna within the CSIR itself. Evidently, finding a solution to this problem is an immediate task facing not only the CSIR but also the entire S and T set up in this country. Attempting this at the level of the entire range of S and T activities and organizations in the country is admittedly a formidable task at this stage. What could perhaps be attempted right away is to conduct this experiment at the level of an organization such as the CSIR.

One of the reasons why some of the laboratories are recommended to be removed from the CSIR system is that, with absence of any cohesion and integration within the CSIR itself, there is very little benefit they derive from continuing to be a part of it Such a 'dismemberment' of the CSIR system could still be avoided if a determined and serious effort can once more be made to transform it into a close-knit Community of scientists who interact closely among themselves with common identify and purpose. Great amount of thought and planning would no doubt be called for in bringing about this transformation. The report of the present Committee, as well as of earner Committees, can perhaps help as useful starting points in this effort It would call for drawing up a comprehensive package of rules, regulations, centimes, motivation, targets, inputs and constraints, and putting it forward to the CSIR Community for discussion and suggestions. Once the CSIR community comprehends the significance that this experiment has for the future course of S and T in India, and once they are assured of their vital interests being safeguarded, then it should be possible to enlist their whole hearted support and cooperation for this venture. Like all experiments in modern science, it is understood that this 'experiment' on the organization of modern S and T in our country would also require creation of certain special conditions that might at times appear to be artificial and unnatural. It is also Kerry that the 'normal* working of the CSIR may be distracted during the process of this 'experiment*. We should however be prepared to accept such temporary losses for the sake of discovering sounder ways of organizing our S and T activity. The 'risk* involved in such a venture is however not too large as the areas of 'strategic' importance such as Atomic Energy, Defence Research and Space Research are any way outside of the CSIR system. In fact most of the existing features of the CSIR system (features that are normally considered negative) make it the ideal organization for conducting such an exciting experiment - these include feature such as its large size, broad range of activities, autonomous status etc In a way it is only fitting that the premier modern S and T institution of this country also becomes the first to try and chart out a new path in the direction of self-reliant indigenous S and T development.

The report of the Abid Hussain Committee can be a valuable starting point for such an adventurous mission.



Author:Dr.C.Krishnan

CURRENT COMMENTS - COTTON FARMER OF ANDHRA PRADESH: THE LATEST VICTIM OF CHEMICAL FARMING

A spate of suicides by farmers in the cotton belt of Parkas District in coastal Andhra Pradesh is yet another evidence of the failure of chemical farming. Lured by high yielding varieties of cotton and promise of huge profits farmers took to it in a big way some years ago. Guntur and Parkas districts were traditional tobacco areas but after the erratic experience with the tobacco crop which is a near monopoly of the Indian Leaf Tobacco Development Corporation the farmers took to cotton and found the going quite good. It is an important commercial crop in Andhra Pradesh grown over an area of 5-6 laky hectares with an annual production of 8-10 laky bales of 170 legs each in the state. Guntur district accounts for 1.62 laky hectares and Parkas District 7296 hectares -Le. about'47% of cotton area in the state.

Cotton is a finicky crop but if the farmer nurses it with care and devotes constant attention he is assured of a good yield and income. While farmers with large holdings were unable to devote much time, attention and money to the crop the small growers owning one or two acres played for high stakes by taking on lease land from bigger farmers and raising cotton.

In the year 1987-88 cotton crop suffered very badly due to prolonged dry spell during the early vegetative phase in Parkas and Guntur districts. Inadequate rains during Sharif 1987 followed by 3 successive cyclones in October and November 1987 damaged the crop considerably. This was further followed by widespread heavy attack of American bookworm (Hetiothis armigtm) in November - December 1987 in Guntur and Parkas districts. Adding fuel to the fire was the disastrous attack by the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci gent). It is also reported that there was a large scale sale of spurious or adulterated pesticides. As it is the "budworm" had developed resistance to pesticides in use. The result was* catastrophic. In Parkas District alone nearly 8000 hectares of cotton crop was removed without any pickings and in the remaining area, yield had come down to 2-3 qumUWhcctare as against the normal yield of 14-16 quintals/hectare (see Table 1 and 2).

In December the "Death Harvest" began when the desperate farmers and their families took to pesticides that could not save their crop. The official death toll is 30 whereas there are claims that it may be much more.

Earlier reports indicate that the Hefiotms caused considerable damage to cotton (38%) in the year 1977-78 during December after cessation of cyclonic rains in November and in the subsequent year (1978-79) during the month of January. Since then the damage caused by( the pest was negligible and controlled by recommended inscribes. In 1984-85 whitefly became a serious pest and caught the attention of scientists and cotton growers. Several chemicals and plant products were identified for effective whitefly control and while gaining confidence in the management of whitefly the overlapping occurrence of Halitosis outbreaks’ during this year caused extensive damage to cotton crop resulting in heavy losses. Halitosis occurred on cotton as early as in August and continued with heavy populations throughout crop growth,’ A single cotton plant harbored as many as 7-18 larvae in between November and January months of 1987-88 compared to 0.1 - 4 in the previous years

TABLE - 1

THE DETAILS OF LOSSES DUE TO VAGARIES OF MONSOON AND INCIDENCE OF WHITEFLY DURING 1985-86 IN GUNTUR AND PRAKASAM DISTRICTS

Sl . No	District	Area Under cotton in Hectares	Area damages in Hectares		Yield in Quintals		Total loss in lakhs Qtls.
			Loss less than 5%	Loss more than 50%	Normal	Actuals
1.	Guntur	1,65,200	70,000	80,000	20	7.5	20.35
2.	Prakasam	80,000	-	20,000	20	17.0	2.4

TABLE - 2

DETAILS OF ESTIMATED LOSSES DUE TO EARLY DROUGHT, LATE SEASON, CYCLONES AND HELIOTHIS IN PRAKASAM AND GUNTUR DISTRICTS DURING

Sl. No	District	Drought affected area	Damaged perce- ntage	Cyclone affected area	Percen- tage of damage	Best Damage
						Heliothis area	% of dam- age	White fly area	% of dam- age
1.	Guntur			1,260	Not reported	67,550	50	22,500	50
2.	Prakasam	21,000	40.50	72,055	55.60	72,596	60
				73,315		140,096		22,500

Several causes have been attributed to the sudden outbreak of Halitosis on cotton in Andhra Pradesh. Pigeon pea suffered heavily due to severe attack of Halitosis in 1986-87. Proper plant protection measures are lacking for pigeon pea and hence the residual population of Halitosis on the pigeon pea crop was carried over to cotton crop of 1987-88 season through summer hosts particularly tomato, bendy etc. The pest population occurred much earlier in the cotton crop than the normal period (October - November). These were ignored by cotton growers without taking proper control measures due to severe drought resulting in very poor crop growth. Timely spraying operations against these pests could not be undertaken due to scarcity of water in many villages. Hence pests multiplied during early part of the season and by the time the crop recovered from drought, following cyclonic rains' during October the pest population reached an unmanageable level All attempts made to contain the pest outbreak with recommended insecticides were found futile.

The excessive and improper use of plant protection chemicals over several years has been the chief culprit of the pest outbreak. It is reported that in Southern India more than 26 species of parasites feed on Halitosis. Also several predators like birds, spiders, bugs, mantis, earwigs, and ants eat the eggs, larvae pupae and the moth of the insect. The natural enemy component was almost non-existent in any of the eco-systems where severe outbreak of the pest was noticed. The repeated and discriminate use of some of the most persistent insecticides like DDT along with synthetic pyrethorid components literally wiped away many of the natural enemies. Predation by birds was also not observed as the poisoned insects might have affected the vertebrate predators or the birds might have been scared away from the pesticide treated areas.

The choice of pesticides, dosage, number of rounds applied methods of application were also not adopted scientifically. 3 or 4 insecticides were even applied together as tank mix often at sub lethal doses and applied on cotton. After seeing the total failure or inadequate control the farmers started applying heavy doses. Pesticides were applied even 30-40 times as a result of which the pests developed high resistance to these pesticides.

Application of pesticides with battery operated UDV sprayers might have killed natural enemies drastically. The defective application methods resulted in application of concentrated. pesticides on some plants and only water on others. Several improper spray delivery systems like 'Akola' pump sprayer which applied the chemical spray fluid on top of the plants allowing run off and drop of the chemical and improper coverage of the entire plant were also responsible for poor efficacy of chemicals applied.

Many High Yielding varieties are highly susceptible to the pest. Staggered savings particularly under irrigated condition, extending the crop duration by continuous irrigation, rationing and poor crop refuse destruction are also important factors attributed to the outbreak of the pest on cotton. Pest problem was also acute in areas where there were no closed season in the year.

Monocropping led to the deterioration in quality and yields. Monocropping results in nutritional disorders associated with deficiency of magnesium, nitrogen, pottasium, phosphorous and other physiological causes. Increased nitrogen application without regard to balanced phosphorous and pottasium application led to high incidence of sucking pests in general and whitefly in particular.

A critical study of the pest populations in five cotton growing areas in Andhra Pradesh was made by Reddy in 1988. Three synthetic Pyrethorids and six conventional insecticides were included in the bioefficacy evaluation at recommended doses. In the case of Guntur population it was observed that only 10% mortality of the larvae caused by cypermethrin monocroptophos, quinalphos, endosulfan and DDT, 20% mortality by deltamctrin, fenvalerate and chloppyriphos and 30% mortality by carbaryi. As was stated earlier the insect had developed resistance and cross resistance to almost all insecticides in Guntur region which may be the result of many years of indicrirninatc use of the pesticides in that area.

The inefficiency of many insecticides was also evident with the populations at Nandiyal, Warangal and Adilabad though not at the same level as in Guntur. But the pest was controlled to an extent of 75-100 in Sreekakulam area where the cotton cultivation is relatively new and pesticide load is far less in the agro-environment. Though DDT is banned for crop protection in our country it is still used for cotton protection in Southern states and this chemical comes from public health sector to the agriculture. Development of many fold resistance in Guntur population to synthetic pyrethroids and endosulfan has been observed. Use of Synthetic pyrethorids has resulted in an unusually high degree of resistance in a large number of insects all over the world. What is more alarming is the fact that insects which develop immunity also develop cross resistance to other pesticides. This means that other effective insecticides used against these pests will become useless in future. The resistance to synthetic pyrethorids occurs in a short time as compared to other chemicals. Use of synthetic pynethorid has also led to the flare up of secondary pest like uphids and mites. In several parts of India mite a secondary pest has become a serious problem.

The Haryana Agricultural University had warned the State Government way back in 1984 against the use of synthetic pyrethroids as they prove to be carcinogenic Ignoring the reports the Punjab Agricultural University purchased Rs.14 crores worth of chemical in 1984. Countries selling synthetic pyrethorids (Japan and United States) to India have banned their use in their own countries.

Several measures have been taken by the Department of Agriculture to control the pests. These include pest surveillance, village level training programmers for the farmers in identifying pests and the control measures, use of whitefly resistant varieties, avoidance of the use of repeated and heavy doses of Synthetic Pyrethroids, alternate cropping pattern to check spread of pests and diseases, and wide publicity through mass media for the proper and efficient use of insecticides. Several quality control measures have been taken by the Andhra Pradesh Government to check the quality of insecticides. Efforts are being taken to curb the menace1 of sale of sub-standard and spurious pesticides. The State Government has also taken several steps to help affected farmers in debt by waiving off loans and offering several subsidies. The problem does not end here. We need to look for a long term solution which is obviously an effective and ecologically sound plant protection measure.

Several species of parasites and predators were reported to attack Halitosis armiger in different parts of die country. Deliberate attempts to mass breed and use them in the field are rather limited. 'Again, biological control through conservation of naturally occurring' parasites, predators and insect pathogens is also very important as they can bring down the pest population by about 60-70 per cent. The usefulness of egg parasites, Trichogfamma spp. the Telenomous spp., egg-larval parasite, Chelonus blackbumi, larval parasities, Complete is cholorideae, Eucelatoria bryani, Eriboms trochanteratus, etc., and pupal parasites, Trichospuus pupivora, Testrastichus Israeli and predators like Chrysopa spp. Menochilus etc, will be highly useful to keep the pest under considerable check. The techniques for the mass I production and field release of these biocontrol agents are already’ available in the country and the heed is to strengthen the extension efforts in this direction. The indigenous Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) proved to be an efficient biological control agent of H. armiger. Mass culture of this should be encouraged. National regulatory bodies should develop a defined practical attitude for development and utilization of microbes. Only then the supply of NPV to the farmers at periodic intervals will be possible. Research on the possible use of plant products like Neem seed kernel extract and Neem oil emulsion for pest protection against pests needs to be intensified.

The tragedy at Andhra Pradesh should be an eye opener to policy makers and supporters of Green Revolution, though much has been talked about Integrated Pest management it seems .today that chemical control/pesticide research takes the major share. We look for alternatives only when chemicals fail Also the rate at which we are decreasing our genetic diversity through hybridization and selection is alarming. We are in a danger wherein the entire crop could be wiped out by some pest and we are left with no new variety to start from Let us wake up before we see the "Death harvest" in several other crops. It is time for us to make a serious analysis of the pest control methods and opt for naturally sound ones!

References:

1. The Hindu, February 13, 1988.

2. The Hindu, February 21st, 1988.

3. India Today, "Death Harvest", March 31st, 1988.

4. Times of India, February 22nd, 1988.

5. Times of India, February 23rd, 1968.

6. Indian Express, August 12th, 1984.
7. Indian Express, October 6th, 1985.

8. The problem of Halitosis in India and its integrated management" (keynote address delivered at the National Workshop on Halitosis Management Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, February 18th-19th, 1988) by Dr.SJayaraj, Director, Centre for Plant Protection Studies.

9. The Halitosis Armiger (HUB), serious threat to cotton cultivation in Andhra Pradesh". (Paper presented in the workshop on Halitosis Management on different crops held at TNAU) by the DrAiJatya Narayana Reddy, Senior Scientist (cotton).

10. Statement made by the Hon. Minister for Agriculture and legislature affairs, on March 1988 in reply to notice under Rule 304 given by Sarvastri Mitaga Reddy, S.Sambaiah and others regarding the unabated suicides of cotton growing Riots occurring in Parkas and Guntur District



Author:Dr. K. Vijayalakshmi

CURRENT COMMENTS - BUILDING WITH MUD: A NOTE ON THE TRADITIONAL SCIENCE OF BUILDING IN TAMILNADU

Among the many dramatic changes in world styles and ideas, the fashion scenario evidenced in the field of architecture is perhaps the most interesting. European thought and ideas dominated the scene till the early 20th century, when the designers in America and Japan came into their own. It is only in the last two decades that the simple and often unperceived movements of the ethnic building in the non-Western societies have been taken note of. But even this has been re-adapted to give a feeling of newness and to add to the many attributes of a fashion conscious urban society. We read occasionally about the; innovations of Hasan Faith, the experimental work in Central and South Americas, .the indigenous architecture of Africa and so on. The most noticeable element that emerges from this analysis is the adaptation of simple building techniques, and available materials in the creation of residential dwellings in rural and semi rural conditions wherein economy and availability play a major role in all decision making.

Perhaps, at this’ point, the emergence of a 'down to earth' analysis of the architectural process with the linkage of building technology to the social patterns and human responses would be of some value. Recently I had the pleasure of reading two very meriting books A Hut: Revolution and After by Sri Vinous Kale and A study in Sepia, both brought out by HUDCO and the Academy of Young Scientists. The two books give us an extremely refreshing view of the work based on the Gandhi an Principles. In trying to understand the simple and the profound within the ethos of a village, the authors have introduced an elegant and poetic element into the discussion which not only makes beautiful reading but also builds up the multiple realities in an unusual manner. It is a significant contribution and assisted me in another personal foray into the traditional practices of building with mud as it existed in Tamil Nadu.

Let me now elaborate on these ethnic building styles which have adopted mud, bamboo, palm wood, and coconut and palm leaves as the fundamental resources for residential building in the villages and semi-urban environments. The various types of building activity for which mud was employed exclusively or in combination with bricks, jelly and stone were as follows: as construction material for small village houses, as mortar with brick and stone, walk for forts and ramparts, mud plastering and mud flooring. Apart from this the centering for large structures was also made of mud alone or in conjunction with bricks. This was true of structures made of stone (temples) wherein the stone was laid without any mortar between joints and hence relied on stability only when the structure was completed. Upon completion the formwork that was erected with mud was taken down. This techniques made it possible to not only support the structure but also to create a large platform to work from. Even today this method is adopted for stone temples.

The clay:

The quality of the clay is extremely important for all applications. To identify the right • mix requires a great deal of experience and this has been stressed a great deal in traditional building activity. Some of the best natural clay is found in Ramanathapuram district. Hence it is that we find lots of mud building in this locality. Manamadurai which is in the belt between Madurai and Ramanathapuram is well-known for the excellence of the clay and for the beautiful quality of pots made in this area.

The percentage of gypsum in the clay makes its plasticity ideal for working with. To this material some amount of sand is added to prevent cracking. High clay content soil to sand ratio can be 1:2 or 1:3, while low clay-content can be mixed with sand up to 1:1 V2 or 1:1. The sand should be river sand, and of coarse grains. Small pieces of stone or gravel (1/4") found in the sand can be added, for this gives greater strength to the mixture. If not found naturally such small stones or gravel may be added separately in small quantities.

Preparation:

When the soils have been mixed in the required proportions, water is added and the whole thoroughly mixed till a consistency suitable to roll the material into a large sized ball is formed. 'A great deal of pressure is applied to the earth by stamping with the feet, so that a fairly homogeneous mixture has been obtained. This mixture should be cured for 3 to 4 days. The mixing should be done in the open, under sunshine. This strengthens the clay and prevents cracking. Every day, water should be added in necessary quantity, to maintain the plasticity of the mixture. The curing and continuous mixing (by stamping) is to ensure complete homogeneity, and this increases durability of the material.

The cured clay should then be; mixed with fine straw, or rice husk to ensure better binding of the material. This method is very similar to the one adopted in making Variety or dung cakes meant for fuel. The quantity of hay or husk is approximate, and should be such that the plasticity of clay is not reduced.

Strengthening:

To further strengthen the mixture decoctions, of certain seeds is added to the clay while-curing is carried out The Triphala (Emblic myrobolan, Beleric. myrpbolan and Chebalic myrobolan) are well proven to increase the binding of substances. Any one of these dry seeds may be used. The seed is firstly powdered and then soaked in water, by suspending the powder in a thin cloth bag. The water changes in color and absorbs the tanginess of the seed (the color change is compared to that of horse urine!). The soaking should be for about 2 days. A small quantity of this decoction is added to the clay mixture while curing.

The durability of earth-which has been treated with the decoction of the triphala can be understood clearly with the following description of one of the uses of clay in traditional practice. In some instances, earth mortar is also utilized to create divine Images in temple sanctuaries. In particular Vishnu and Muruga images are frequently composed of mortar of earth known as Kadusharkara. Though many other substances are adopted to make this process a highly sophisticated and skilled one, the appreciation of decoction of the triphala is a most important part Such a mortar of earth prepared in this manner, is capable of creating divine images that last through daily ablutions for well over two decades. In some instances, specialized preparation is supposed to keep the material intact for 75 years also! Thus we can say that the seed essence has remarkable durability.

Now that the mixture has been prepared, the place where the walls have to be erected is to be readied. There are some important rules to be kept in mind with regards to the preparation of the building site.

The actual space where the mud house is to be erected should be well cleaned and the wall trenches dug up to 1' or 1' 6" depth. The excavated earth should be removed. Similarly the earth within the house that is exceed should also be removed. Under no condition should this earth be used to refill the trench. A layer of river sand to a depth of 6" should be filled into the trench, and well consolidated. Over this the wall should be erected.

The building of walls:

The various walls comprising of the dwelling should be erected simultaneously. This includes outer walls and cross walls. Separately erected walls could develop cracks at joints. This should be avoided. The prepared earth can be either applied by hand without any formwork or placed within a bamboo or wooden shuttering. The latter method ensures better quality in the appearance as well as also in the compactness of the clay.

In one day not more than 1*6" in height of the wall should be built Alternate days should be left for drying. This is very important; otherwise the walls would not be strong enough to take the additional load. Each course 1'6" high is called Padai and even to this day the masons call the belts or courses laid as Padai. Window openings are laid out with bricks and with a light wooden lintel Similarly doorways are also set out with a hotel and door frames. The lintel should have a bearing of half the thickness of the wall on either side of the opening.

The wall should have a minimum thickness IT or 1*3" at its base. The top thickness can be half the thickness at base. The wall should be tapered as it is built The taper should only be on the outside so as to’ give a plane surface inside. When the walk are built by using a formwork then it is possible to change the thickness with sharp edges that can be ornamented and made aesthetically pleasant When built without the aid of formwork, it might be better to give a smooth curve on the outside so as to cover the irregularities of finish.

The total height of mud walls without support should not exceed T6". The top surface can be made slightly convex to aid cleaning. The thickness of the wall depends upon the height to which it should be built; the ratio of thickness to height can be 1:5 or 1:6. The maximum length of walls without either turnings or cross walls should not exceed 10’ to 12’. After the walls have been erected, they should be left exposed to the sun for one week before the roofing is done.

The roofing can be made with wooden poles over which either palm leaves or coconut leaves are tied. The poles can be of bamboo, casuarinas, palm wood (Panay), stone or country wood.' Of these Panay would be the most economical as well as durable. When suitably mature Panay is used, its age can be anything between 50 to 100 years. In Chet nod some houses boast a roof with Panay planks that have not been replaced for over 250 years. Hoe quality of the tree, the maturity of wood, its seasoning etc are extremely important to ensure this durability.

The mud walls of this house is not capable of taking loads of any kind, hence the roof should be independently supported. The framework of the roof can rest on wooden or stone posts placed either outside, inside or within the walls of the houses. The placing of vertical columns outside the house has been found to be most efficient. Placing them within the walls may lead to cracks, while placing them inside the bouse creates dead spaces in the rooms.

Next the flooring which has been filled with river sand to a depth of 6" to 12" is well consolidated and base jelly pored over. This consists of 3/4" of jelly in mud mortar 1:4. Over this the mud mortar which has been prepared for the walls is laid evenly for a thickness of 2" to 3". This mixture can be thinned a little and smoothened. Similarly the walls are also plastered by hand, over which a smooth stone is used to polish and finish the surface.

When the plaster has dried, cowdung is used to cover the walls and floor evenly. 3 or 4 layers of the dung mixture should be used before the wans are completed. Drying after each application is essential. Finally whitewash with, lime, and Kavi borders at base and top arc applied. Though the finished effect is aesthetic, the actual reason for the application of cowdung and Kavi most crucial. Along with the river sand bed, the cow dung, lime wash and Kavi help in safeguarding the building from the attack of termites. Building materials such as earth, wood and leaves are prone to termites, and this simple and extremely 'organic method has been used for preservation from insects in traditional building technology for centuries. To this day such buildings do not have termites and other insects.

Additional to this simple design, lofts may be added whenever necessary to increase storage spaces. Shelves can be introduced wherever necessary whilst the mud walls are being erected. Outer spaces can be further enhanced by excluding Timrod as also within the house. Platforms for storing grains or for placing the fire can also are introduced in the design. In the case of houses which are designed to have two floors, the intermediate floor may be supported with independent columns over which the next level of walls can be built following the same precautions as before. The total height would require the base walls to be made stronger and thicker. The thinnest portion of the wads should not be less than 9" (at the top).

In conclusion we would like to point out the simplicity and elegance of mud as a building material. It requires a great deal of personal involvement and supervision, as also high quality in the mixture as well as in the choice of wood for roofing but has the advantage of very simple methodology as far as construction is concerned. The coolness and the remarkable healthiness of the built environment are of utmost significance. The floors of such houses are extremely beneficial to sleep on and do not give rise to any physical problems (unlike Dunlop pillows and mattresses). Community housing with such building can be tastefully designed, as well as with unlimited variations. Unlike streamlining and cost reduction of high quality materials which requires the ascetic minimizing of form and beauty, this material lends itself to enormous imaginative use. Thus highly exciting as well as aesthetically beautiful buildings can be made.

Since the heights are restricted, the resulting effect would never be visually disturbing. The materials are also not processed through wasteful methods and hence are economically more viable. The whole community participates in this kind of building which lends itself to a healthier and more harmonious lifestyle. Perhaps the young of today could take a look at this building alternative, and not denounce it as a solution meant only for the economically weaker section.

The multiple solutions that I am able to perceive with the simple earthen, materials conjure up many visions in my eyes. The plasticity of earth and clay makes it possible for unlimited shapes and forms to be created, within the constraints of durability and rigidness. The structures can be diverse and yet retain their organic linkage with nature which is so sadly lacking in city-scopes of today. Community dwelling created with mud can even be finished with tiles instead of thatch so as to increase longevity - as can be seen in rural houses. Very interesting clusters are possible, with attention paid to the warmth and humanness of both built and open spaces. This would be enhanced by mixing gardens with dwellings wherein the lines of the one mingle with the natural contours of the other. Participatory building activity and personalized spaces could offer the necessary impetus for fostering belonging and accountability in community clusters and neighborhoods. Perhaps this alternative design process could be introduced as a part of school and college education, so that young people would like to experiment in living in interdependent clusters.



Author:Sashikala Anant

CONFERENCE NOTES

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MUD ARCHITECTURE
Much has been said lately about the ugliness of mass-housing schemes in India. Critics have also pointed out that die schemes for mass-housing have ignored local and traditional wisdom1 not only in design and aesthetics but more importantly in the area of techniques and materials of construction.

The materials used in modern construction, particularly cement, involve very high energy consumption for their manufacture. It has often been pointed out that these materials are economically incompatible with the' needs of the large majority of the Indian people, particularly the urban and rural poor, for whom most of the governmental mass-housing schemes are designed. Further, the' manufacture of modern materials such as cement are undesirable from the point of view of their negative impact on ecology. It is for these reasons that mud, which has been a building material for has again become the focus of attention of many governmental and non-governmental agencies in India.

Mud architecture is perceived as fan appropriate and sustainable solution to the housing problem as:

(1) it is of low cost and makes use of local materials and techniques (2) it has many desirable features such as excellent heat insulation and good compressive strength (3) it is environmentally sound and energy efficient and (4) it is lab our intensive and therefore capable of generating opportunities for employment, higher income and self-help in housing.

An International Conference on Mud Architecture (ICMA) was organized in Trivandrum on 25th - 28th November, 1987. The conference was jointly organized by the following: Ministry of Urban Development of the Government of India, Government of Kerala, Housing and Urban Development Corporation: All India Housing Development Association and Economic at Humanism, Lyon, France:

We shall here present an outline of the various technical papers presented at the ICMA (about seventeen papers have been compiled in the volume entitled "Technical Papers"). In the foreword to the technical papers, the subject of the Conference has been stated as "Redefining and restating the relevance of mud as a building construction medium in all its forms and the upgrading of technologies and institutional support work". The papers have been grouped under four different heads:

1. Policy: The social, economic, environmental and energy implications of building in mud.
2. Technology: Mud technology and its up gradation.
3. Institutional Support: Institutional support for propagating mud as a relevant building medium for urban and rural housing.
4. Documentation: Identification of international experience and case studies suitable for documentation.

Policy:

The first paper titled "Back to mud - a step forward", by S.K.Sharma, (HUDCO, New Delhi) reviews the housing situation in India and examines the role of mud. This paper also serves as a preamble to all the following papers.

Between one fourth to half of the urban population in most large cities of India lives in make-shift shelters, squatter settlements or slums. The situation in rural areas seems to be far worse, with about 75% of the houses being classified as semi - or non-permanent construction. Total housing shortage in India will be more than 40 million units by the turn of the century. Of these, some 30 million will be in rural areas and nearly 10 million in urban areas.

Currently, in India, approximately 80% to 90% of the rural and 30% to 40% of the urban population lives in mud houses. Over 65 million of the nearly 118 million houses in India are of mud construction. Most of these mud houses are constructed according to the principles of traditional architecture, which ' has evolved in response to local environment, climate and way of life. It is integrated into the social system.

Government housing programmers, though prominent in Governmental plans, are hampered by a number of limitations. Lack of adequate finance for keeping pace with the growing demand for shelter is a chief limitation. Most formal construction programmers are with brick, cement and concrete - based on technologies which not only raise the cost of housing but also involve high consumption of energy, which is a scarce item.

With this in view, the paper cautions that it would be wrong to reject mud on the ground that it is an outmoded building material and suggests that mud be fully integrated into the process of planning and development. However, the author points out that "mud architecture" is not to be identified with "substandard" mud houses - "ill prepared, ill-applied mud with a poor roofing system" which a large number of poor live in. A mud house "can be an inviting home with various modern facilities in a pleasant environment". The author adds, "so long as it relates to the needs, life style and affordability of the occupier, it would be better than what more durable technologies can offer".

Explaining the revival of interest in mud "which has been around for a long time and which has been abandoned in favor of new cement-based materials", the author calls for a reassessment of the relevance of traditional building materials like mud in the context of modern technology and construction methods. He adds, however, "It is not being suggested that house design should return to principles that were utilized prior to 20th century. Indeed they cannot, as the present social, cultural and economic conditions are not the same" (emphasis added). In other words, the importance of mud is in its appropriateness only as a building material. But the author immediately goes on to say "The unfortunate shift to so-called modern values has found little use for traditional knowledge and building systems that are well-adapted to an environment. We must substantiate the relationship between climate and many of these time - tested principles so that their usefulness is not lost".

After high-lighting the important advantages of mud housing the author goes on to state some of its so-called shortcomings: (1) since mud is eroded easily by water, it may not be suitable for use in areas with high rainfall or possibilities of flooding (2) it has low tensile strength which, means mud roofs are difficult to make (3) it is susceptible to damage by rodents etc(4) Mud does not grip wood properly, so that gaps develop around wooden doors and windows in mud walls. Hence mud houses have few openings and are often poorly ventilated. Where walls are made of reinforced mud, wattle plastered with mud, or made of sun-dried bricks, this problem is not severe. (5) Mud soaks up water and becomes heavy. Consequently wooden beams supporting roofs tend to sag, leading to cracks in the roof and leaking.

These disadvantages may be overcome by improvements in design and technology such as: (1) Stabilization of mud - other materials is added to improve its strength and water-resistance. (2) Architecture - narrow streets, closely packed houses, overhanging roofs etc. (3) Structural techniques - walls of mud are sometimes made up by ramming successive layers of earth between shuttering, which makes the wall bear weights better.

Next a variety of constraints which hinder the use of mud for construction, are enumerated. There are often governmental regulations which prevent the use of mud, and the provision 'of institutional loans and grants. Rejection of mud as a construction material is also made on so-called objective and technical grounds apparently based on the poor durability of mud over time, which may lead to increased maintenance and repairs. Another reason is simply the lack of adequate knowledge of handling mud for building construction. There is some subjective factors as well which result in the rejection of mud for construction.’ One such is the "desire to conform to notions of what is modern in construction, which leads to an imitation of western models and the use of materials which are considered modern". Finally, traditions in building arc no longer passed down from generation to generation.

The different areas of application of mud,!in building construction - such as walls, mortar and plaster and roofs, are also outlined. There are several well-known methods of application of mud for walls - direct shaping; compacted or rammed earth; adobe or sun dried bricks; wattle and daub; compacted soil block; puddle clay and cob; extruded earth etc.

The remaining sections of the paper deal, though briefly, with new technology inputs in mud architecture; the need for skill up gradation, the need for institutional support and encouragement from the political - administrative leadership, the need for more research work and other intervention from modern scientists and technologists etc. The concluding section of the paper introduces the work of HUDCO, which is the principle techno-financing institution in low cost housing in India.

While the above paper sets the background and makes a strong case for the need for a "mud architecture" for housing, it also reflects a somewhat ambivalent attitude towards the role of traditional knowledge in mud architecture. It is not clear how mud architecture would meet the housing needs of Indian or any people without also satisfying some more fundamental needs of the people such as their psychological and cultural needs. What perhaps leads to this confusion is the perceived need to sound "modern*1 and "rational" and not "sentimental" or "romantic". There is also an underlying concern that "mud architecture" must seem compatible with a "modern" life style so that the economically better-off may also consider it as relevant to their housing needs.

The second paper under policy, "Mud Architecture: An environmental need" is by Prof. K.Ravi. This paper begins with a brief historical introduction, and highlights the fact that even today, there are many traditional "Nalu-Kattu" houses in Kerala, which are more than two - hundred years old. This should dispel the common notion that mud as building material is not durable. The following sections deal with the environmental appropriateness of mud architecture and the environmental implications of using modern building materials, in particular, bricks, in place of mud.

Modern building materials are not only energy - wasteful but also heavily air-and water-polluting. Substitution of mud for bricks and cement can bring down the level of air pollution significantly. Tree felling and deforestation for fire-wood to be used in brick kilns can also be avoided by the use of mud instead of bricks. Cement industry consumes enormous quantities of water and this water resource can be saved by avoiding the use of cement. There are other benefits of using mud such as the suitability of mud housing with regard to the Indian climate.
The last section of this paper argues for the development of an "integrated institutional and technological approach" towards improving the image of mud, overcoming some of its deficiencies and making mud architecture acceptable to the public as well as to governmental policy.

Unfortunately, no empirical data has been presented regarding energy and ecological impact of the use of bricks and cement. Perhaps a distinction could have been made between bricks and cement, since cement is far more polluting and energy - consuming.

Tree felling for brick-manufacture appears particularly Hamagmg only in the context of a general deforestation due to modernization and industrialization and a lack of planning for aforestation for kun-use. It is also necessary to work out the implications of a complete switch to mud for all housing such as the availability of mud, etc.

The third paper in this section by Sanjay Frakash and Aromar Revi describes some of the potentials, prospects and projections for building design and construction in two Western Himalayan river valleys,' the regions of Ladakh around the upper Indus river, and of Spiti around the Spiti river rain these areas of high altitude and low resource levels, energy - conscious earth building has traditionally been a part of everyday existence. This paper describes some aspects of the existing situation and explores future possibilities for these areas.

The geography, fixate, and lifestyles of the people of the, two areas are presented briefly. Following this, traditional building construction practices are described and their appropriateness to the natural resource-base, climate and lifestyle of the people is highlighted. For while adobe is, the dominant-form of walling in I.adakh, in Spiti the dominant form of walling uses lightly-rammed earth. Traditionally there have also been some simple empirical tests to determine the soil-bearing capacity of the building site. The authors suggest that the adoption of such traditional techniques is essential for current building activity. Different features of traditional building construction are described in some detail - walls, plasters, roofs, floors, doors, windows etc. This is followed by case studies of several buildings in the two areas. Traditional design and architectural features are described briefly.

The last section of the paper deals with the changing situation which is a consequence of increasing population, energy and resource shortages. This implies that construction would have to be faster, more energy effect and buildings would have to have higher spatial, thermal and structural efficiencies. Some technological solutions are offered, like for instance the use of glass and other modern materials for improved heat insulation.

The fourth paper in this section, "Salient sodo-cultural features of mud architecture in India" by Prof, Degrades Mukhopadhyaya, is a brief statement on the politics of mass housing in India and the options that are available. An example of building construction based on local materials and skills is also given.

The fifth paper in this section, "Some policy Issues in Housing", is by Vinous Kaley. This paper describes the evolution of the so-called Rural Housing crisis in India; the attitude of the Indian State and the efforts by the State to resolve this crisis; the crisis in the supply of building material, particularly wood; the forest policy of the Indian State and how this affects rural housing - with an example from Wareham district. Some recommendations are made for future pock particularly with regard to making available forest raw materials such as bamboo to die rural people.

The final paper in the policy section deals with different uses of mud and the versatility of mud as building material.

Technology:

The paper, "Mud walls: Tradition and Innovation", by Pro! K.S.Jagadish, deals with a number of ways mud walls have been used traditionally in South Kamataka region such as, cob-wall, mud-concrete, adobe wall, bamboo reinforced mud wall eta, and a number of innovations that have been tried using mud, such as, rammed earth, pressed-soil block, stabilized adobe, and makes a comparison of all these technologies. Some innovations in protection of mud walls against rain are discussed. It is argued that capital and energy intensive and centralized mass production of bricks eta, are unsuitable from the point of view of providing mass housing to the poor.

The paper, Tired Houses", by Ray Meeker, deals with a relatively new idea for stabilizing earth structures - namely firing of earth houses. The process, stated simply is as follows:

- Build a room/kiln in unbaked mud brick. The roof can be either vaulted or domed.
- Fill the room/kiln with a product: i.e. bricks, files, drain pipes, etc. and fire to between 900°C and 1000°C.
- Use a portion of the product for finishing the house - tile, roof and floor, build a small compound wall with the bricks, etc
- Sell the remainder of the product to recover as much of the building cost as possible.

In theory, with the "right" product, the building could cost nothing. The paper argues that this concept is "potentially revolutionary in its economic implications".

The paper "Mud technology for housing of common people" by A.Balakrishnan, deals with different methods of using mud for walls and improvements innovations.

Institutional Support:

The first paper corning under this group is a report on the activities of the Centre for research and application of earth construction technology (CRA Terre) a French organization. There is a fairly detailed section on the research activities of this organization. The origin of the organization is traced back to the "energy crisis" in Europe in 1983. This prompted experiments with simple and cheap building materials and energy efficient techniques suitable for low-cost housing. Research efforts were encouraged by the living tradition, in some areas of France, of loam earth construction. This research seeks to provide explanations based on modern science for some traditional practices, mainly in Africa.

Next is the report on the work of the organization Nirmithi Kendra (Building centre) in the Quilon district of Kerala. This organization was started in 1986 with the objective of

(i). A tftmimil agency to generate and propagate motive (modern) ideas in housing
(ii). A clearing house of information and data bank on housing which would bring the fruits of research from Tab to Land".
(hi). A production centres; to prefabricate standardized housing materials.
(iv). A training house ;to impart skills to local workmen in innovative (modern) housing techniques and! create a cadre of trained workers in all the blocks of the district
(v). A nodal agency to serve as a catalyst in the field of housing, ensuring coordination1 in implementation of housing programmers.

The Kendra is seen as an effective link between the elite urban researcher and the rural house builders.' During a span of about 9 months in 86-87, the Kendra had trained over 200 young trainees from as over, Kerala, in modern low-cost housing techniques such as use of Ferro-cement, rafters, joists, tanks, rubble filter blocks (stone block masonry), soil-stabilized pressed blocks, funicular shells etc The trainees are encouraged to form themselves into the Nirmithi Rural Housing Corps, with their area of operation confined to the respective community development blocks with the Block Development Officer as Chairperson. These trainees in turn disseminate this technology to recipients for undertaking construction utilizing various housing alternatives.

In order to make housing available to rural people at affordable prices, Nirmithi Kendra has launched a
program me for mass production of housing materials. At various locations in the Quilon district the Kendra mass produces several type of new low-cost housing materials. The Kendra has found some new solutions such as "Asch treatment" of rubber wood, which is generally freely available in Kerala, to compensate for the shortage of traditional timber, particularly coconut wood. It is expected that this method will be able to supply timber for door and window frames for less than l/3rd the cost of the conventional wood.

One of the recent achievements of the Kendra has been the construction of more than 300 Ferro-cement water tanks in one month engaging its own trained masons, at about l/3rd of the cost at which private rnanufacturer construct these tanks.

Initially die mtroducbon of new technology into villages encountered resistance from villagers and local masons, who questioned the effectiveness of the new' techniques which sought to ‘replace the traditional techniques. However, the Kendra claims to have become successful in getting the participation of villagers in their housing programmers.

While efforts such as Nirmithi Kendra fill a vital gap in the field of mass low-cost housing, 'there is stir a need for such organizations to do research into the traditional knowledge in the area of housing and base innovations, where necessary, on such knowledge, so that such mnovatioos become truer; appropriate.

The final paper in this section is on the role of the cooperative sector and voluntary organizations in propagating mud architecture. Several mud-related technologies for rural use are briefly described.

Documentation:

The final group of papers, on Documentation, includes two case studies presented by two French organizations on their work in mud architecture. The final paper in this section contains some information from a world-wide survey of earth construction activities presented by two technologists from France.
Recommendations:

At the end of the conference, each of the four groups put forward several recommendations. The following is a summary of the recommendations of the different groups.

(i) Policy: Recommendations of this group cover several areas. The following recommendations have been aimed at the Government:

Education: Simple, informative books must be prepared to educate children, students and others on all aspects of mud architecture and the suitability of mud as a building material in today's context.

Land: Since non-availability of land is a major bottleneck in housing, land distribution to the poor, particularly in urban areas must precede housing programmers.

Standards: Mud houses must be granted permission by authorities without unnecessary restrictions.

Government Buildings: The Government must promote mud architecture by using it wherever feasible.

Local Materials: Since tike non-availability and increasing costs of materials such, as wood, bamboo etc, are serious constraints on the use of mud architecture, paper manufacturers must be made to supply 20% of their stock of bamboo to home - owners at reasonable prices.

There are several other general recommendations, concerning building standards; information about mud architecture; data base on mud; people's participation in mud construction; women's role in mud architecture; incentives to promote mud use, etc.

(ii) Technology: The recommendations made by tins group concern the following issues: research activity in the soups for their suitability in mud architecture; communication among research groups; use of mud as an alternative to brick/concrete; research on the use of mud in foundations, roofs and floors in addition to walls; delivery systems for new technologies; research on traditional technologies; an Indian standard code pertaining to mud construction etc.

(iii) Institutional Support: The recommendations of this group deal with the relevance of building standards for mud architecture; inclusion of mud architecture in the curricula of architectural schools; national and state-level coordinating agencies for propagation and dissemination of mud architecture; data banks on mud architecture; decentralization of building centers, etc.

(iv) Documentation: This group concerned itself with communication and documentation, through various media, of information on mud architecture.

As the group on technology recommended, there is a need today for a great deal of research on traditional science and technology of mud architecture. For instance in the Tamil tradition, the Viswakarma Community, who are the traditional technologists, are said .to be the repositories of a vast body of knowledge on mud architecture. It is necessary for the modern mud architects, to interact closely with the traditional architects and overcome some of the so-called deficiencies of mud as a building material, such as lack 'of durability, low tensile strength etc. That mud structures and buildings have stood for hundreds of years has been mentioned by some of the participants of the ICMA. It is time that the Indian tradition of mud architecture is resurrected to take its rightful place in the solution of the mass-housing problem in our country.

It is also a fact that there has been a degeneration of traditional skills in general, as a result of long years of neglect and lack of patronage. However there are still several master builders of the Vishvakarma tradition in our country, who can be the nucleus of a regeneration of Indian architecture. It is essential that the India State provide the necessary resources for a major effort towards such regeneration.

It is also essential that the modern mud architects work out comprehensive plans using mud architecture as the technology for mass-housing schemes. Such plans must be fully substantiated by cost-benefit and techno-economic analyses. This will go a long way in persuading both the public who are the beneficiaries and the planners about the need to bring mud architecture back to the mainstream of modern architecture and building technology. Mud architecture is important today not only from the technological and economic but also from social considerations. Only the use of mud as building material will bring forth the initiative and participation of our people and it is only then that our housing problem will find an appropriate solution.


Author:A. V. Balasubramanian





METALLURGY AS PRACTISED IN ANCIENT INDIA
A two day seminar was organized in Madras on June 24th and 25th 1988 on the theme -"Metallurgy as practiced in Ancient Times". The seminar was organized jointly by the Madras Metallurgical Society, Madras Museum and the Department of Archeology of the Government of Tamil Nadu. The seminar was inaugurated by the industrialist Shri R.Rathnam who "wondered whether there is something in our ancient practices - the famous iron pillar at Delhi for instance - that we are missing to avail a simpler solution to the present day corrosion problem".

There was a broad range of topics covered by the speakers. Some papers were a routine survey of data available regarding ancient metallurgy from published technical literature or even literary evidence. A large number of papers dealt with corrosion, conservation and restoration of metal antiques - these hardly fall within the scope of the seminar. It would have been far more interesting if some attention had been paid to traditional methods of conservation - the way in which metal objects (like bronze icons in our temples) are preserved without damage for hundreds of years and what we can learn from them. A suggestion along these lines was indeed made by Dr.Nagasamy in his valedictory address.

The more interesting presentations were from those scholars working on archeometallurgy. Prof. K-T.M.Hegde (M.S. University of Baroda) reported the work of his group regarding Zinc Metallurgy in the Zawan area of Rajasthan. Excavations carried out in the site over the last few years have revealed that Zinc was being produced here by the distillation process in a metallic form. Till recently modern scholarship believed that metallic Zinc was first produced when William Champion introduced the "distillation per descended" process in 1746 in Bristol. The Zawan excavations have revealed that the mining and production of Zinc has been in progress in the area at least since the 1st century B.C. Hence from the very ancient times Brass was being produced in India by mixing metallic Zinc with Copper (this gives greater control over composition) while it was being produced elsewhere in the world by the cementation process (i.e. reduction of Zinc ore in the presence of Copper - this gives inferior quality Brass) till the late 18th century.

Thelma Lowe (University of California, Berkley, U.S.A) presented results of her investigation on the nature of the crucible used in producing ingots of the famous 'Woods Steel*. She has been investigating the fired crucible segments and ingots from heaps of the debris of the industry in Konasamudram Milage of the Nizamabad District of Andhra Pradesh. She described how the crucible made of rice husk and clay was an excellent material for the production of Woods. This technique of production seems to have given the ancient steel makers independent control over grain size and carbon content - which even today remain the two critical factors in determining the steel quality.

An interesting feature of the seminar was the presence and participation of Shri Devasenapathi (of Swamimalai in Tamil Nadu) who is a renowned sculptor of metal Icons. The Sthapati demonstrated the traditional method of making icons by the Madhu Ucchistha Vidhana (equivalent to the Ore Perdue - the so called 'Lost - wax* process) to the audience. In addition there was an imaginative session in which a dialogue took place between the1 Sthapati and a modern metallurgist - Shri Ranganathan (of Hyderabad) who specialises in casting metal statues. In this session the two of them outlined then-respective methods of casting 'images. The exchange was moderated by Dr.Gopal of the Madras Metallurgical Society who made the session lively and absorbing by his thought provoking and imaginative questions.

Dr.Nagasamy (Director of Archeology, Tamil Nadu) presented to the audience the case of the "The London Maharaja". This icon which was stolen from a temple in Thanjavur district was traced in London a few years ago. Subsequently the Tamil Nadu Government staked a claim to it and a judgment was given in its favors. A startling sidelight to this lecture which was a sort of an anticlimax came later. A member of the audience wanted to know if there was any truth in the rumors that a large number of our temples are even now being deprived of their icons which are finding their way abroad and that what we have left are only dummies. Far from any clarification or reassurance on this issue, the chairman of the session disallowed the question because of its "sensitive" nature -prompted by high officials of the Department of Archeology! A distinguished archeologist who was present at the seminar later on shared his misgivings on this matter with this author. He said that it has been noted for the past several years that even small museums abroad ("Second and third rate museums") seem to be continuously acquiring several high quality bronzes and icons of’ Indian origin. This is indeed a matter that needs to be looked into .very urgently and corrective measures taken.

Scattered throughout the seminar - from the inaugural address of Dr.V.SArunachalam (Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence) to several presentations that came later -were statements emphasizing the need for a study of the traditional techniques of metal work and metallurgy, since they are of interest not only as history or art but also from the point of view of what we can learn from them today. Some specific suggestions were also made from the audience, such as the institution of awards and honours to distinguished traditional practitioners; creation of avenues by which the faculty and students with background in modern metallurgy can study with traditional scholars and artisans; survey, compilation and publication of the source works on Indian metallurgy (such as texts on Rasa Sastra etc) - to cite only a few of them. However, the meeting concluded without any direction or action plan in this area. In this respect it was perhaps similar to several earlier meetings. For instance, twenty five year ago in 1963, when the National Metallurgical Laboratory convened a meeting on The Delhi Iron Pillar", many similar sentiments were expressed. And we seem to have hardly progressed in our understanding of our traditional practices of metallurgy and have done nothing to assess their current day implications or potential. Still, there has perhaps been a general change in our situation, which renders this line of thinking more acceptable today. It may be hoped that we can now work towards a more concrete plan of action in this area.



Author:A. V. Balasubramanian